The historical voice is uncertain
Our sources disagree in genre and purpose, so separating the historical Socrates from Plato's philosophical character is difficult.
Ancient Greek philosophy · c. 470–399 BCE
Socrates
Socrates makes examination a way of life, testing confident claims until speakers can see what they know, what they assume and how they should live.
Socrates was an Athenian philosopher who wrote no surviving works and is known mainly through Plato, Xenophon, Aristophanes and later testimony. Tried and executed on charges of impiety and corrupting the young, he became the defining model of philosophical questioning in the Western tradition.
EthicsKnowledgeAgency
The question he enters
The question Socrates enters
What survives when the reasons behind your most confident belief are questioned one by one?
The central move
Test the life through dialogue
The Socratic practice begins from another person's claim and asks for definitions, examples and implications. Elenchus exposes tensions between commitments, while Socratic professions of ignorance make recognition of one's limits a starting point for inquiry rather than a performance of empty certainty.
Key ideas
Terms that carry the argument.
- Elenchus
- A cross-examining method that tests a claim against other commitments held by the speaker.
- Socratic ignorance
- Recognition that apparent wisdom may collapse under examination and that knowing one's limits matters.
- Care of the soul
- The priority of becoming just and thoughtful over acquiring wealth, reputation or power.
- Intellectualism
- The strong connection in Socratic thought between knowing the good and being able to act well.
Where the view strains
Objections and limits.
Refutation may not build a positive account
Showing that a definition fails does not by itself establish a better theory or guide action in urgent cases.
Sources and routes
Read the work. Follow the argument.
Primary texts
Where to meet the position.
- Project GutenbergPlato's ApologyWebA literary presentation of Socrates' defence, mission and refusal to abandon examination.Plato's Apology in the English translation by Benjamin Jowett. · Socrates left no writings. Plato's dialogue is a primary ancient witness to his defence, not a work authored by Socrates; readable online with ebook downloads. Checked Aug 2026.
- Project GutenbergPlato's EuthyphroWebA Socratic examination of piety and whether goodness depends on divine approval.Plato's dialogue in the English translation by Benjamin Jowett; an ancient witness to Socrates rather than a work authored by him. · Readable online with downloadable ebook formats from the catalogue page. Checked Aug 2026.
- Project GutenbergXenophon's MemorabiliaWebA contrasting ancient portrait of Socrates' conversations and practical teaching.Xenophon's ancient witness to Socrates in the English translation by H. G. Dakyns; not a work authored by Socrates. · Readable online with downloadable ebook formats from the catalogue page. Checked Aug 2026.